Data and Business Intelligence Glossary Terms

What is an A/B test? A test that compares two different versions of a product or interface (typically the existing one and a new variant) by presenting different options at random to different people and gathering data on their behavior.

What is an API? A program’s API, or application programming interface, defines how other programs can communicate with it.

What is an aggregation? An aggregation is the act of summarizing data with a mathematical function, such as averaging the values in a column, or counting the number of rows in a table. The resulting number is often called a metric, which is distinct from metrics in Metabase. Individual values in a field may not hold much meaning on their own, but when we combine these values in some specific way, we can paint a more comprehensive picture of our data. Aggregation is the process of collapsing those values into a single result, and is usually performed in conjunction with grouping — that is, combining multiple rows based on a certain value, like grouping by a dimension (e.g., a product category or country). Aggregations can be calculated on the fly, but you may also want to create summary tables with your results and save the results of those aggregate functions for future use. Summary tables can be especially useful when working with large datasets; since summary tables are precomputed, queries that rely on them can run much faster. Common aggregate functions in SQL Different databases have different sets of functions, but here are some of the most common aggregate functions that you’ll encounter: COUNT() - Counts the number of rows in a table. AVG() – Computes the average of values in a field. MIN() – Identifies the minimum value in a field. MAX() – Identifies the maximum value in a field. SUM() – Returns the sum of values in a field. STDEV() – Calculates the standard deviation of values in a field. Example aggregation Using Metabase’s Sample Database, let’s say we wanted to know the average price of our products, grouped by product category. In this case, we’ll use the Products table. Our SQL query would look like this: SELECT category, avg(price) FROM products GROUP BY category Just like we wanted, we’ve calculated the average of values in the Price column of our Products table, and grouped those averages according to their value in the Category field. If we wanted to execute that same aggregation in Metabase’s query builder, we’d Summarize by Average of Price, and then group by Category, like in the image below: Fig. 1. Performing an aggregation in the query builder: average price of products grouped by product category.

What is an alert? You can set up a question to send you an alert via email or Slack if a question returns data, or if the data crosses a goal line that you define. Read the docs on how to set up alerts.

What is an analytical database? An analytical database is a database optimized for a few large analysis operations rather than many small transactions. OLAP usually relies on analytical databases.

What is the Metabase application database? The database in which Metabase stores operation data about questions, dashboards, and other Metabase information.

What is an area chart? An area chart is a type of line chart where the space between plotted values and the x-axis is filled in with a solid color. You can think of an area chart as a cross between a standard line chart and a bar chart. In an area chart, you still have a line that connects data points (usually plotting change over time), but by filling in the area between that line and the x-axis, you’re highlighting both the data’s relationship to zero and the relationship of any subcategories to a total. When to use an area chart Area charts are a great choice when: You’re plotting multiple subsets of data that, together, make up some total value. You need to represent volume and changes in volume over time. Your data contains too many x-axis data points for a stacked bar chart. Consider a different visualization, like a bar or line chart, if: You’re only measuring a single series over time. Your data is highly volatile, subject to frequent and/or significant swings. You’re measuring a large number of subcategories within one chart. Example area chart Similar to a stacked bar chart, stacking data on an area chart works best if you have a small number of categories to track — too many and your area chart will start to get chaotic or unreadable. Figure 1 shows Orders broken by out by Product → Category, visualized as a stacked area chart. Using this visualization, we can understand both the rise and fall of individual product categories and how orders have performed as a whole: Fig. 1. An example area chart.

What is an attribute? An attribute is a property that describes or identifies some entity. People in the data world use “attribute” in a few different contexts, so we’ll do our best to disambiguate here. Basically, an attribute is a characteristic of something. That something might be a table, but attribute could also refer to a characteristic of a specific record, like user attributes in Metabase. Attributes in relational databases In relational databases, people often use attribute synonymously with column or field, like how a product’s Category is an attribute of (or describes) that product. This usage of attribute comes up a lot within the context of data modeling and when designing entity relationship diagrams. Example attribute Here’s a look at the People table in Metabase’s Sample Database, which includes fields like ID, Name, Address, City, State, and so on: Fig. 1. A look at the People table. Each of these fields is an attribute — the values in those fields describe something about the record they’re associated with, in this case a “person” in the People table. User attributes in Metabase Sync user attributes is only available on Pro and Enterprise plans (both self-hosted and on Metabase Cloud). Attribute can also refer to a distinct variable value that gets associated with a certain user, like a User_ID. That structure is known as a key-value pair, sometimes referred to as an attribute-value pair. In Metabase, some plans allow you to set user attributes yourself (or pass them to Metabase via SSO). You can use these user attributes to set up custom destinations on a dashboard, for example by using a user ID to parameterize a URL when that user clicks on a chart. User attributes are also an important part of data sandboxes, which give you granular control over the data that people using your Metabase instance can access. Since data sandboxes are associated with individual users, setting distinct user attributes lets Metabase know exactly how to filter a table depending on who views it.

What is an audit log? Audit logs is only available on Pro and Enterprise plans (both self-hosted and on Metabase Cloud). An audit log is a record of activity and performance in a Metabase, available to admins in some Metabase plans. Audit logs give admins an overview of how people are interacting with their Metabase — which questions are most popular, who’s looking at which dashboards, what alerts people have set up, and others. Example audit log Figure 1 shows an example audit log page, found in the Admin panel > Audit section: Fig. 1. Example of an audit log. The charts show which questions are most popular and which take the longest to load; identifying which questions and dashboards are slowest to load can help inform changes that you may want to make, like adjusting your cache settings or optimizing SQL queries. What can audit logs tell you? Audit logs contain info about: How team members are using Metabase Databases you’ve connected to Metabase Questions that people are asking and viewing Dashboard popularity and performance Data that people are downloading and exporting

What is a BI tool? A BI tool is an app designed for people to look at data without relying on code. These apps allow people to visualize and share data as tables, charts, and dashboards. BI tools plug into existing data sources at your organization, such as your data warehouse, CRM, or event analytics service. Common BI tools Spreadsheet applications A classic example of a BI tool is a spreadsheet app like Microsoft Excel or Google Sheets, where you can visualize data in tables, pivot tables, or charts, and share the results as individual files (or links to those files in the cloud). BI platforms A BI tool is often thought of as an app that is only used to visualize data and make reports. A BI platform like Metabase is type of BI tool that can handle additional tasks adjacent to reporting, such as data modeling, data cataloging, version control, and permissions management. How do BI tools fit into a data stack? Fig. 1. BI tools fit under the analytics component of a modern data stack. BI tools are one of many analytics tools that can be set up at the user-facing end of a data stack. BI platforms in particular can handle some of the same tasks as other parts of your stack. Here’s how you can expect the pieces to interact: BI tools vs. databases BI tools aren’t data sources — they don’t replace production databases or data warehouses for storing data owned by your organization. BI tools pull information from databases by running queries and displaying the results. BI tools vs. ETLs BI tools don’t replace ETLs (or ELTs) for ingesting or transforming large amounts of data on a schedule. However, like ETLs, some BI platforms can handle data modeling and data stitching (joining data from different databases) by running queries on the fly. BI tools vs. event analytics services Event or web analytics services like Google Analytics, Segment, or Amplitude collect usage data from your product. Although these services come with their own interface to visualize and share that data, they aren’t considered BI tools. You can think of them as mini data stacks that can be used standalone. Event analytics services can be integrated into your core data stack by combining them with a central BI tool. You can download event data from the service and move it into the data warehouse connected to your BI tool, or if supported, wire up the service to connect directly to your BI tool. BI tools vs. open source coding tools Open source tools like Jupyter Notebook and RShiny use programming languages like Python and R to work with data. They can be used to build reports and dashboards for analytics, but they aren’t considered BI tools because they rely on code rather than a visual interface.

What is a bar chart? A bar chart is data visualization that uses rectangles (or bars) along axes that are proportional in size to the values being measured. These bars are scaled to the values associated with discrete, categorical data. Bar charts are useful when you want to compare fixed values across categories. One axis will contain the categories being measured, while the other will show their corresponding numerical values. Fig. 1. A bar chart showing the average rating of products by category. Figure 1 shows a standard column chart where the bars are displayed vertically, but you can also visualize your data with horizontal bars, known as a row chart. Figure 2 displays that same data — average product rating by category — in a row chart. Fig. 2. The same data visualized with horizontal bars, called a row chart. You aren’t limited to a single dimension with bar charts; they can be great for multi-series charting. For example, maybe you want to compare how orders performed by quarter based on user source. In this scenario, you could use a standard multi-series bar chart or a stacked bar chart, where user sources are stacked proportional to their values within a single bar, each bar displaying data from one quarter. And if you’d rather see those as relative percentages of within their stacks, consider a 100% stacked bar chart. Bar charts are widely adopted and easy to interpret, making them a good option for quick-reference comparisons.

What is a bin? A bin is a single range of continuous values used to group values in a chart. Binning data helps simplify data visualizations, so people can get a sense of their data’s distribution and easily spot outliers. You most often see bins used with histograms, but they aren’t exclusive to histograms and can be useful with other visualizations like line charts or pie charts. If a measure in your dataset contains a lot of unique values, plotting each individual data point on a chart can look cluttered and may not be the best representation of your data. When you bin that data, those values get grouped into equal-sized intervals (like 1–10, 11–20, 21–30, and so on), and your resulting chart will show a count of values within each bin. Data binning example Figure 1 shows the price of products in Metabase’s Sample Database, displayed as a histogram. Fig. 1. The prices of products in our Sample Database, shown as a histogram. Metabase automatically generates bins based on how the data is distributed. The bins here are the price ranges; we can see that we have more products in the $37.50–50.00 price range than any other. Metabase auto-binned these values, but we can also select the number of bins we wanted (either 10, 50, or 100) to tweak this chart further. If your bin size is too small, you’ll have too many and likely end up with a visualization that’s hard to interpret. However, too few bins will give you an incomplete or overly-compressed picture of your data’s distribution, so play around and figure out what works best for your data.

What is a breakout? A breakout is the grouping of aggregated results by one or more dimensions, like the count of users grouped (or broken out) by country. The column you choose to group by is sometimes known as a breakout column. In native SQL queries, the GROUP BY statement serves a similar function, separating and organizing results based on whatever dimension(s) you’ve specified. Example breakout in Metabase Figure 1 shows a metric (sum of order subtotal), broken out by two dimensions: 1) the month an order was placed and 2) the product category. Here we’ve visualized this breakout as a stacked bar chart. Fig. 1. A stacked bar chart with a metric (sum of order subtotals) broken out by two dimensions: month and product category. You can also break out your data when drilling through on a chart in Metabase. Clicking on a chart like this brings up the drill-through menu, where you can further break out your data. In figure 2, we’ve used the action menu to break out a subset of our data by the Vendor of the product ordered. Fig. 2. Using the action menu to break out our data.

What is a bubble chart? A bubble chart is a way to visualize the correlation between three different variables. It’s basically a scatterplot where each plot has put on some weight. You can also use color to display an additional dimension. If the set of values used to determine the bubble size includes zero or negative values, bubble charts are probably not a good choice. There are ways around it (like using absolute values), but generally it’s hard for people to make sense of bubbles with negative size, for example. Bubble chart example Fig. 1. A bubble chart. In figure 1, the bubble chart shows the correlation between the product’s average rating (the x-axis) and the product’s price (the y-axis). Additionally the size of each point (that is, each bubble) corresponds to the quantity of the product ordered; the higher the quantity, the larger the bubble. We might expect to see some correlation to between average rating, price, and quantity ordered, but the Sample Database included with Metabase is a random dataset, so there isn’t any real pattern here. In figure 2, we’ve further broken out the plotted bubbles by category, with the color of each bubble corresponding to product categories: Gizmos, Gadgets, Doohickeys, and Widgets. Fig. 2. A bubble chart further broken out by product category.

What is a CTE? A common table expression, or CTE, is a named result set in a SQL query, equivalent to a subquery. CTEs are evaluated each time the main query is run.

What is a card? A card is a component of a dashboard that displays data or text. Metabase dashboards are made up of cards, with each card displaying some data (visualized as a table, chart, map, or number) or text (like headings, descriptive information, or relevant links). Cards and questions Cards on a dashboard are more than just mini versions of the questions you’ve asked. If you’re adding saved questions to a dashboard and calling it a day, you may be missing out on a lot that cards can do. You can combine multiple saved questions in a single card, as long as they share a dimension. Your cards don’t have to contain different questions either. It may be useful to put include same card on a dashboard multiple times, like if you want to visualize one question as both a line chart and a bar chart. Editing cards on a dashboard When editing a dashboard, you can: Arrange and resize cards on the dashboard’s grid. Change a card’s visualization options without affecting the underlying question. Connect cards to dashboard filters to filter the question’s results. Set a card’s click behavior to change what happens when someone clicks on a card. And while it’s great for those cards on your dashboards to look slick and visually appealing, it’s more important that you’re conveying the information that people need to see, without too much added fluff. Example of cards on a dashboard The dashboard in figure 1 includes text cards that act as headings and descriptions, as well as cards with numbers, trends, a line chart, and a region map: Fig. 1. Cards with questions and text on a dashboard. Cards and the Metabase API In the Metabase API, the api/card route refers to questions, rather than cards on a dashboard. You can still use the API to edit and get information about the cards on your dashboards (like with api/dashboard), but keep that distinction in mind, and check out the API documentation for a full list of routes and endpoints.

What is a collection? In Metabase, a collection is a set of items — questions, models, dashboards, and subcollections — that are stored together for some organizational purpose. You can think of collections like folders within a file system. The root collection in Metabase is called Our Analytics, and it holds every other collection that you and others at your organization create. You may keep a collection titled “Operations” that holds all of the questions, dashboards, and models that your organization’s ops team uses, so people in that department know where to find the items they need to do their jobs. And if there are specific items within a collection that your team uses most frequently, you can pin those to the top of the collection page for easy reference. Pinned questions in a collection will also render a preview of their visualization. Fig. 1. A look at a collection in Metabase. Administrators can set collection permissions to determine which collections (and by extension, their contents) are viewable by which groups in Metabase. In addition to the top-level Our Analytics collection and whatever collections your organization creates, each Metabase user has their own Personal collection. These are semi-private, in that admin users can view the contents of everyone’s personal collections. Personal collections are a good place to store questions and dashboards that you haven’t quite perfected yet, and you can move them to a public collection whenever you’re ready.

What is a column? A column is a list of values, usually belonging to a particular field, displayed vertically in a table. In a relational database table, values within a column each correspond to a different record. Values in a column share a data type. That is, if a column’s data type is Integer, that means every value within that column must be an integer. There may be other constraints too, related to formatting, character length, or whether or not that value is mandatory. Example column Here’s an image of the Orders table in Metabase’s Sample Database, with the Created At column highlighted. The Created At column’s data type is DateTime, and the values in this column each correspond to the timestamp of a single order. Fig. 1. A look at the Orders table, with the Created At column highlighted. Columns vs fields While columns and fields aren’t technically the same thing, it’s usually okay to use these terms interchangeably. See Columns vs. Fields. However, keep in mind that columns don’t always directly correspond to fields in a database. For example, you may want to create a custom column in Metabase that contains calculated values, like one that displays the percentage discount for each order. You’d create this custom column by telling Metabase to calculate the Discount divided by the Subtotal and display the resulting value in a new column. Columnar storage While many traditional relational databases store data as rows and are typically best suited for holding transactional data, some databases (like data warehouses optimized for analytics) utilize columnar storage. Columnar databases (also known as column-oriented databases) physically store a column’s values together, rather than indexing based on entire rows. This can drastically speed up analytical queries and aggregate functions, since those queries will be able to retrieve similar data from the same location on a disk, rather than executing large reads across the database to pull a column’s values from individual records.

What is a combo chart? A combo chart is a chart that combines bars and lines.

What is compaction? The process of taking data that is stored in scattered locations and bringing it all into one contiguous location to improve performance.

What is concat? Concat (or concatenate) is a function that combines multiple strings into a single string. The word comes from the Latin root con- for “together”, and caten- for “chain”. For example, you might want to concatenate a city (Vienna) with a country (Austria) to get a single location string like “Vienna, Austria”. The Metabase concat expression is translated into a SQL CONCAT function when running against your database, like this: SELECT CONCAT(City, ", ", Country) AS "Location" In Metabase and other BI tools, you can assume that concat only works with the text data type (often called a string). If you want to use concat with other data types, like numbers or dates, you’ll have to convert them to text first. If you prefer to write SQL, note that the functions JOIN, UNION, and MERGE might sound like they work similarly to CONCAT, but they are used to combine rows and columns from different tables, rather than text strings from different columns.

What is a country code? A country code is a standard two- or three-letter string that identifies a country. Metabase supports alpha-2 country codes. Country code list AD Andorra AE United Arab Emirates AF Afghanistan AG Antigua and Barbuda AI Anguilla AL Albania AM Armenia AO Angola AQ Antarctica AR Argentina AS American Samoa AT Austria AU Australia AW Aruba AX Åland Islands AZ Azerbaijan BA Bosnia and Herzegovina BB Barbados BD Bangladesh BE Belgium BF Burkina Faso BG Bulgaria BH Bahrain BI Burundi BJ Benin BL Saint Barthélemy BM Bermuda BN Brunei Darussalam BO Bolivia (Plurinational State of) BQ Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba BR Brazil BS Bahamas BT Bhutan BV Bouvet Island BW Botswana BY Belarus BZ Belize CA Canada CC Cocos (Keeling) Islands CD Congo, Democratic Republic of the CF Central African Republic CG Congo CH Switzerland CI Côte d’Ivoire CK Cook Islands CL Chile CM Cameroon CN China CO Colombia CR Costa Rica CU Cuba CV Cabo Verde CW Curaçao CX Christmas Island CY Cyprus CZ Czechia DE Germany DJ Djibouti DK Denmark DM Dominica DO Dominican Republic DZ Algeria EC Ecuador EE Estonia EG Egypt EH Western Sahara ER Eritrea ES Spain ET Ethiopia FI Finland FJ Fiji FK Falkland Islands (Malvinas) FM Micronesia (Federated States of) FO Faroe Islands FR France GA Gabon GB United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland GD Grenada GE Georgia GF French Guiana GG Guernsey GH Ghana GI Gibraltar GL Greenland GM Gambia GN Guinea GP Guadeloupe GQ Equatorial Guinea GR Greece GS South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands GT Guatemala GU Guam GW Guinea-Bissau GY Guyana HK Hong Kong HM Heard Island and McDonald Islands HN Honduras HR Croatia HT Haiti HU Hungary ID Indonesia IE Ireland IL Israel IM Isle of Man IN India IO British Indian Ocean Territory IQ Iraq IR Iran (Islamic Republic of) IS Iceland IT Italy JE Jersey JM Jamaica JO Jordan JP Japan KE Kenya KG Kyrgyzstan KH Cambodia KI Kiribati KM Comoros KN Saint Kitts and Nevis KP Korea (Democratic People’s Republic of) KR Korea, Republic of KW Kuwait KY Cayman Islands KZ Kazakhstan LA Lao People’s Democratic Republic LB Lebanon LC Saint Lucia LI Liechtenstein LK Sri Lanka LR Liberia LS Lesotho LT Lithuania LU Luxembourg LV Latvia LY Libya MA Morocco MC Monaco MD Moldova, Republic of ME Montenegro MF Saint Martin (French part) MG Madagascar MH Marshall Islands MK North Macedonia ML Mali MM Myanmar MN Mongolia MO Macao MP Northern Mariana Islands MQ Martinique MR Mauritania MS Montserrat MT Malta MU Mauritius MV Maldives MW Malawi MX Mexico MY Malaysia MZ Mozambique NA Namibia NC New Caledonia NE Niger NF Norfolk Island NG Nigeria NI Nicaragua NL Netherlands NO Norway NP Nepal NR Nauru NU Niue NZ New Zealand OM Oman PA Panama PE Peru PF French Polynesia PG Papua New Guinea PH Philippines PK Pakistan PL Poland PM Saint Pierre and Miquelon PN Pitcairn PR Puerto Rico PS Palestine, State of PT Portugal PW Palau PY Paraguay QA Qatar RE Réunion RO Romania RS Serbia RU Russian Federation RW Rwanda SA Saudi Arabia SB Solomon Islands SC Seychelles SD Sudan SE Sweden SG Singapore SH Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha SI Slovenia SJ Svalbard and Jan Mayen SK Slovakia SL Sierra Leone SM San Marino SN Senegal SO Somalia SR Suriname SS South Sudan ST Sao Tome and Principe SV El Salvador SX Sint Maarten (Dutch part) SY Syrian Arab Republic SZ Eswatini TC Turks and Caicos Islands TD Chad TF French Southern Territories TG Togo TH Thailand TJ Tajikistan TK Tokelau TL Timor-Leste TM Turkmenistan TN Tunisia TO Tonga TR Türkiye TT Trinidad and Tobago TV Tuvalu TW Taiwan, Province of China TZ Tanzania, United Republic of UA Ukraine UG Uganda UM United States Minor Outlying Islands US United States of America UY Uruguay UZ Uzbekistan VA Holy See VC Saint Vincent and the Grenadines VE Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) VG Virgin Islands (British) VI Virgin Islands (U.S.) VN Viet Nam VU Vanuatu WF Wallis and Futuna WS Samoa YE Yemen YT Mayotte ZA South Africa ZM Zambia ZW Zimbabwe

What is cross-filtering? Cross-filtering is clicking on a chart or table in a dashboard to filter everything else in the dashboard.

What is a custom column? Sometimes called a “calculated” column. You can use a custom expression to add columns to the results of your query. For example, adding a column that calculates the difference between the total and subtotal.

What is a custom destination? A custom destination is a setting on a dashboard card that determines what happens when people click on the card. You can set up a chart to send people to another question, dashboard, or external URL. You can also use values from the chart to parameterize the URL, for instance, by inserting an ID into the URL string.

What is a custom expression? A custom expression in Metabase is a formula that uses functions and mathematical operators to allow for more complicated questions, similar to a formula in spreadsheet software. You can include custom expressions in questions asked via Metabase’s query builder. Custom expressions give those GUI questions more power and flexibility, without requiring you to write a full SQL query. You can write custom expressions to create custom columns, or to create more advanced filters and aggregations. Example custom expression in Metabase The example below shows the creation of a custom column that categorizes Orders according to their Subtotal using the case function. Fig. 1. Writing a custom expression in the notebook editor. Figure 2 shows the resulting table, with our new custom column on the right: Fig. 2. The resulting Order size column created using a custom expression.

What is a DAG? A directed acyclic graph (DAG) is a graph in which it’s impossible to get back to any starting node by following the links between nodes.

What is a dashboard? A dashboard is a data visualization tool that holds important charts and text, collected and arranged on a single screen. Dashboards provide a high-level, centralized look at KPIs and other business metrics, and can cover everything from overall business health to the success of a specific project or campaign. The term comes from the automotive dashboard, which — like its business intelligence counterpart — provides status updates and warnings about important functions (just for things like low brake fluid instead of how your recent marketing campaign performed). Dashboard vs. report Dashboards aren’t exactly the same as reports, though you’ll sometimes hear people refer to dashboards as reports. The difference is that dashboards tend to be easier to read and understand at a glance, while traditional reports provide a more detailed look at a subject. Unlike traditional reports, dashboards are viewable on a single screen and often incorporate some interactive elements. You’re probably not going to print out a dashboard to read, which would make a lot more sense for a traditional report that draws on static, historical data. However, just like with traditional reports, you can send out updated dashboards according to a set schedule, like with dashboard subscriptions in Metabase. Dashboards in Metabase In Metabase, dashboards are made up of cards that contain either questions or text. You have a lot of options when creating and editing dashboards in Metabase, like: Arranging and resizing cards to fit your desired dashboard design. Making your dashboards interactive by setting custom click behavior and linking one dashboard to another. Adding filter widgets and wiring them up to specific fields on individual cards. Using Markdown to annotate your dashboard with text or GIFs. Sharing your dashboard with a link or by embedding it in your website or app. Example dashboard Figure 1 shows an example of a dashboard in Metabase with three question cards and three filter widgets. If someone inputs a customer ID, customer name, or date into one of the filter widgets, the charts will adjust accordingly to fit reflect that added filter. Fig. 1. A dashboard with three question cards, and three filter widgets.

What is a dashboard subscription? Dashboard subscriptions allow you to send the results of all the questions on a dashboard via email or Slack on a schedule.

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What is a data dictionary? A data dictionary is a document that describes the tables, fields, and other elements in a database and explains their meaning and origin. Data dictionaries are repositories for a database’s metadata, storing the administrative information that people need to understand and make use of that data. Think of them like a typical dictionary, but instead of every word in a language, data dictionaries contains definitions and about the objects that make up your database. An up-to-date and comprehensive data dictionary helps make sure that everyone stays on the same page about what certain fields or tables mean in practice. Data dictionaries can also help make sure that different departments are all using those terms consistently. Data dictionaries are usually a separate file or set of files stored alongside the database they describe. While some aspects of your database’s data dictionary may be accessible to all database users (like important descriptions that everyone needs to know), other parts may only be viewable by database administrators (like technical details about the physical implementation of your database). Data dictionary in Metabase In Metabase, the data reference section acts as a data dictionary. What goes in a data dictionary? Data dictionaries collect and store metadata associated with a database, usually information like: Table and field descriptions Data types Integrity constraints Naming conventions Locations of files While the exact formatting of your data dictionary will depend on your organization and the complexity of your dataset, it’s common for data dictionaries to be formatted as a table or series of tables, with fields for metadata like field name, description, data type, character length, and whether null values are permitted. You can make a data catalog with a simple spreadsheet, within your relational database software, or even as a text document. Data dictionary vs. schema vs. data catalog There’s some overlap here with a database’s schema, but generally speaking a schema defines the structure of the database and how tables and their fields fit together, while a data dictionary provides contextual information about that data. Maybe you’ve heard about data catalogs too, another similar concept. Some organizations utilize data catalogs to better facilitate discovery and analysis of their data; they’re like data dictionaries with some added features and functionality, taking things a step further than the traditional document-based data dictionary.

What is a data lake? A data lake is a place to store both structured and unstructured information, typically as files or blobs. You can think of a data lake as a dumping ground for all of your data, regardless of structure, format, or intended use. The idea of a “lake” is largely marketing jargon, but the aquatic comparison comes from the idea that information in a data lake flows in a more “natural” state than that of the more rigid and hierarchical data warehouse. And because they can hold raw data that doesn’t need to adhere to a specific schema, data lakes tend to be cost-effective when scaling to store substantial amounts of information (into the petabytes). Since there’s no need to define a schema at the start, data lakes can be straightforward to set up; you can load data in for a specific use or just to keep it on hand for the future, even if you aren’t yet sure what kinds of queries you’ll need to run on it. However, once you do get things set up, configuring the tools you’ll need to actually make your data lake useful can get complex and expensive — typically requiring the expertise of data engineers. Those engineers will set up ETLs as needed, or even train machine learning models on parts of your data lake. Data lakes rely on a schema-on-read system, meaning data only gets verified against a schema once it’s pulled from that data lake for querying, rather than when it’s first written. This does mean, however, that pulling from and making use of a data lake takes more work. And just because a data lake allows for greater flexibility doesn’t mean you should thrown all data governance out the window; the information that goes into your lake should still be of good quality, cleaned and annotated so that your ETLs or query engine (and by extension, the people who need the data) can make good use of it. When to use a data lake If you need to analyze huge volumes of semi-structured and/or unstructured information (like if you’re an IoT company) then a data lake may be a good fit. Since there’s no need to enforce an overarching schema when data is written, data lakes can also be an effective solution if you’re dealing with many different types of data sources at once — like streaming data, structured application databases, data from IoT devices, social media, or web traffic. Ultimately, organizations with complex data needs may not rely exclusively on a data lake or a data warehouse (or even a data lakehouse), and instead construct data architectures that can incorporate both, taking into account the organization’s overall strategy, the needs of the people who’ll use it, and the types of queries those people will need to execute. Setting up a data lake Let’s say you want to set up a data lake. In broad strokes, the process will look something like this: Choose a cloud storage provider. There are data lake services out there that can help you set up the various layers and tools you’ll need, but at its core your “lake” is your storage layer — wherever you’re keeping that structured and unstructured data together (like in AWS S3 or Microsoft Azure). Identify your data sources. These may be structured (like an application database), semi-structured (like XML or JSON files), or unstructured (like social media posts, images, or text documents). Clean up and ingest data from those sources. At this stage, you’ll annotate those data sources (especially the semi-structured and unstructured ones), adding metadata and tagging and classifying them based on the types of questions you’re likely to ask of that data. Once that data has been cleaned up, those annotated copies get loaded into your data lake, probably in a columnar format like parquet that’s better for analytical queries. Create ETLs as needed and query your data lake. Because of their mix of formats and often-unstructured nature, engineers and data scientists are usually the ones directly accessing a data lake. People like your data analysts will query the data lake through the use of query engines like Presto or SparkSQL, which run ETLs over the data lake, structuring it on a regular schedule so the data can be queried via SQL. Those queries get executed on the cleaned-up, annotated, columnar copies of your data, rather than on the raw data sources themselves (both the raw data and the cleaned-up date are stored in your data lake).

What is a data lakehouse? A data lakehouse is a system that combines a data lake with a data warehouse.

What is a data model? The term data model is used to describe any pattern that organizes and labels information. People will use “data model” as a generic way to refer to concepts like schemas, derived tables (views), or ERDs. A good data model helps people find things faster. For example, a mall directory is a data model that organizes information about the stores in the mall. It groups and labels the stores by category or location, and explains how the stores are related to one another by displaying them on a map. This model makes it easier for people to find out where to go, compared to wandering through the mall on their own, or reading through a random list of store names. Data modelling example To make decisions during data modelling, it’s best to start by figuring out what people want to look for, and why. Let’s say we want to create a data model for storing information about movies, to help people look for new things to watch. You can think of this data model as a template that can be filled out for any movie. The template should do two things: Represent the parts of a movie that are useful for finding a specific one. For example, people might search for a movie they want to watch by title, director, genre, or actor. Describe the relationships between the parts, so that it is easy to look up one group of information based on another. For example, the template should make sure that any movie title is associated with at least one director. The simplest type of data model groups related parts together into one template, and includes some information about how to fill it out. For example, the template below can be used as a data model for any movie. Movies Title: Any text (mandatory). Director: List of names (mandatory). Genre: Any text (optional). Cast: List of names (optional). The model can be expanded by adding more parts related to movies such as Release year or Run time. We can also expand on existing parts if they are useful for looking things up. For example, people might want to search for a movie by specific information about the actors in them, such as any acting awards they’ve won. Since Cast only keeps track of actor names, we can split out award information into a new data model. Acting Awards Award: Name of acting award (mandatory). Award year: Year (mandatory). Actor: First name and last name (optional). Since actor names appear in both models (either under Cast or under Actor), there is a relationship to connect the Movies model and the Acting Awards model. When both templates are filled out with real movie and awards information, people will be able to look up a movie by a particular award. The written templates above are a basic way to think about breaking down information for data models, but there are many best practices that you can follow depending on the use case. You can find examples of common data model formats in the next section. Common data models Schemas Schemas are a conceptual data model. They are used by people who work with databases. Information is represented by named columns and data types. Relationships are described by structures such as tables or JSON objects. ERDs ERDs are a visual data model. ERDs are used by people who need to talk about information management and architecture. Information is represented by different shapes, such as rectangles or diamonds. Relationships are described by different lines, such as arrows or dashed lines. Metabase models A Metabase model is a data model that you can create and save from a question or SQL query. Information is represented by named columns and any associated metadata. Relationships are described by the logic used in the question or SQL query. How people actually use the term data model You might find that different teams use the term “data model” informally to mean different things: People who write SQL may use it to refer to derived tables or views. Programmers may use it to refer to a schema or ERD. The Data Model in Metabase If you’re a Metabase admin, you’ll have access to the Data Model page in Metabase. The changes you make here will affect the way that data appears across all of Metabase. What’s the difference between the Data Model page and a Metabase model? The Data Model sits on top of the raw data warehouse tables connected to Metabase. It is a layer of modelling you can use to clean up the tables that your organization can see. You can think of it as a way to “translate” information between the data world and the business world by assigning human-readable names and saving common definitions of segments or metrics. Metabase models sit on top of the Data Model. They can be created by anyone with permissions to use the underlying database tables.

What is Metabase’s data reference section? Metabase’s data reference section, found at /reference/databases or by clicking on the book icon throughout Metabase, lets you add and look up metadata about your databases and their tables and fields.

What is a data sandbox? A data sandbox is set of boundaries that define access to a table down to its columns and rows. You can coordinate data sandboxes with your SSO setup.

What is a data type? A data type is a field’s classification as implemented directly by a database. Data types inform what kind of values should be expected in a field, such as integers or strings.

What is a data warehouse? A data warehouse is a database used for analytics. This could be a standard relational database, or one that’s specifically designed for analysis, relying on columnar storage. The analysis part happens in whatever BI tool your organization uses, but that BI tool has to pull its data from somewhere — that “somewhere” is your data warehouse. Data warehouses typically store information from a number of sources (like the different operational databases that your organization uses), and those raw data sources make their way into your data warehouse via ETLs in a data pipelines, usually constructed by a data engineer. Unlike a data lake, the information you store in a data warehouse is structured, so it’s ready for analysis when you query it with your BI tool. Whether that structuring (or transformation) process happens inside (ELT) or outside (ETL) the data warehouse depends on how your pipelines are configured and what transformation tools you’re using.

What is a dimension? A dimension is a descriptive, qualitative attribute of your data, like a name, category, or URL field. Often you will filter or group a measure measure or metric by a dimension, like grouping revenue (the metric) by state (the dimension). Unlike measures, dimensions can’t be calculated or computed; they’re discrete and categorical. That is, you can’t determine the average name or standard deviation of a field containing user birthdays. Example dimension A product’s category is a dimension of that product, and the average price of that product (the measure) could be grouped or filtered by that dimension.

What is a drill-through? To explore a pre-selected subset of data, e.g., by clicking on a bar in a histogram to see the raw values for that bar.

What is an ERD? An ERD, or entity relationship diagram, is a graphical representation of how tables in a database connect to each other. ERDs show a database’s structure (or schema) at a high-level. ERDs are a useful tool when designing a new data model or identifying issues within an existing schema. Entity relationship diagrams are basically just boxes (your entities, or tables) connected with lines (the relationships between them). Your database software may have some built-in functionality to create ERDs, but you can also use whatever design software you like best or go the analog route and draw out your ERD on a piece of paper. The how is less important; what really matters is making sure that your diagram is accurate and logical, so you can design the most effective database for your specific use case. Example ERD Here’s an example of an ERD showing Metabase’s Sample Database: Fig. 1. A simple ERD of Metabase's Sample Database. The four tables, Orders, Products, People, and Reviews, are our entities, and the connecting lines show the three one-to-many relationships between them. ERD design and notation When sketching out an entity relationship diagram, each box should contain information like that table’s name, field, and key information (primary and foreign keys). You’ll notice in the example above that each table’s key information is indicated with (PK) and (FK) next to field names. The type of line between each entity illustrates the kind of relationship each table has to another. Different organizations and industries use different conventions for ERD notation, but one of the most common is crow’s foot notation, named because the three-pronged symbol (the one that gets used for “to many”) looks a bit like the foot of a bird. Figure 2 shows the common symbols used in crow’s foot notation and their corresponding relationship types: Fig. 2. The lines used in crow's foot notation to represent different types of table relationships.

What is an ETL? Extract, transform, load: an ETL is a common operation in data processing systems that reads data from sources, massages it, and stores it in another system. For example, an ETL system might read data from web server logs and a customer database to fill up a table of user sessions.

What is Embedded Analytics? Embedded analytics refers to using third-party software in your application to allow your users to query their data. Embedded analytics can refer to the simple insertion of static charts in your app (usually via an iframe), but embedded analytics usually refers to a more interactive experience where people can view and create charts, tables, and dashboards, and in general explore their data on their own. Embedded analytics is more than simply using a charting library in your app; the analytics software should be able to work with SSO, manage groups and permissions, and even data modeling, all of which make it easier to incorporate analytics into your product. Software that provides embedded analytics usually allows you to white-label the charts and dashboards so that they look like they belong in your app. Organizations typically embed analytics with a third-party tool (like Metabase), rather than build the analytics themselves, because 1) it’s often cheaper (in both the short and long term), and 2) you provide a better user experience than you would were you to build your own solution. Analytics gets very complicated very quickly, and most people would rather devote resources to their core business than try to roll their own analytics in house. Embedded analytics example Check out a demo of three different sites, each with embedded analytics that uses Metabase under the hood. (You can toggle between sites on the nav in the upper right.) metaba.se/sdk-demo.

What is embedding? Embedding is the process of placing some functionality of one application inside another. In analytics, this usually means integrating data visualizations into a parent application, allowing people to view charts within the context of the their own application. Embedding can save time and resources for the parent app too, allowing teams to draw on existing analytics tools rather than building everything from scratch themselves. While not the only way to embed something, embedding in Metabase involves using an iframe (an inline frame) to place a question, dashboard, or (in some plans) the full Metabase app within another application. Embedding Metabase charts and dashboards Embedding is more than just placing a static image of a chart into your site or app. Instead, that iframe creates a nested browser within your main browser or app that points to its own, separate URL. This way, the embedded Metabase chart or dashboard stays up to date. When you view an embedded chart, you’re still seeing the Metabase chart itself — just nested in the parent application. Depending on security configurations, your individual embedded charts and dashboards are either public or secure embeds. You can also configure or lock parameters to affect what people see on those charts, like in figure 1: Fig. 1. Making parameters editable and enabling dark mode before publishing a dashboard for embedding. Embedding the full Metabase application Interactive embedding is only available on Pro and Enterprise plans (both self-hosted and on Metabase Cloud). With some plans, you’re able to embed the full Metabase experience within your application. Interactive embedding is particularly useful for multi-tenant analytics, like providing your customers specific reports that they can view and interact with all while remaining in your app.

What is Metabase’s Enterprise Edition? Metabase Enterprise Edition is a paid version of Metabase that includes additional features for managing large deployments or delivering interactive embedded analytics to your customers.

What is an entity key? Sometimes called a primary key, the entity key is a unique value that identifies a row in a database table.

What is a field? A field is an attribute of a record in a database table. You can think of a field like the “heading” of a column, or a label on a container of values. Fields in Metabase also contain metadata about the values the field contains (see Field properties). Example field Subtotal is a field in the Orders table in the Sample Database included with Metabase. Fig. 1. Fields in the Orders table of the Sample Database included with Metabase. The fields in a table define the values each record can have in the table. Field properties In Metabase, fields have four properties: Field name Field description Data type (like Integer or Text) Field type (like Income or Foreign key) In figure 1, the Subtotal field has a field type of Income and a data type of Float, as well as a description: “The raw, pre-tax cost of the order. Note that this might be different in the future from the product price due to promotions, credits, etc.” Columns vs fields People usually use the terms “column” and “field” interchangeably. They’re technically not the same thing, but it usually doesn’t matter. See Columns vs. Fields.

What is a field filter? A field filter is a special variable that you can use in SQL queries that lets you create a “smart” filter widgets. You can connect your SQL-built charts to dashboard filters. If you write queries in SQL, you should definitely learn how these work, as you can do things like create pre-populated dropdowns in your filter widgets.

What is a field formula? A field formula is an equation that powers a custom expression, like the formula you’d enter in the cell of a spreadsheet. For example, = [Subtotal] - [Discount].

What is a field type? A field type, also known as a semantic type, is the meaning of a field (or column) in a table. The field type determines how Metabase displays the field. For example, a column’s data type might be “text,” but its field type could be “URL”. Metabase would then display the column values as links.” When you create or edit a model, you can select the field type for a column. Admins can change field types globally on the Data Model page in the Admin Panel.

What is a filter? A filter is a predicate expression that limits the results of a query based on some stated criteria. For example, you may want to limit the records in your Orders table so that you only see orders where the value of the Total field is over 100. We can use a predicate expression, Total > 100, to filter the orders. For each record, the query evaluates whether that expression resolves true or false, and narrows the results accordingly. So in this case if the record has a total greater the 100, that record is included in the results. In SQL, queries are filtered using the WHERE clause, like WHERE Total > 100. You can also filter aggregations in SQL using the HAVING clause, like HAVING AVG(rating) > 3.5. Filters in Metabase Filter the results of your questions. Add filters to your dashboards. Set up cross-filtering so dashboard filters update when someone clicks on a card. Link filters on a dashboard to limit results based on the value of another filter. Configure smart field filters in native SQL queries that know which filtering options to present based on field type and column data. Create filter widgets that act as a search function on a dashboard, like for a lookup tool. Example filter in Metabase Figure 1 shows the Products table in Metabase’s Sample Database, with a filter added that narrows the results to only include products where the Title field contains the word “Hat”: Fig. 1. A question in Metabase with one filter added.

What is a filter widget? A filter widget is a UI element on a dashboard or SQL query where you can input a value or select one from a menu to filter results, like selecting CA to limit results to the state of California.

What is a foreign key? A foreign key is an ID field in one database table that corresponds to the entity key (a.k.a. the primary key) of another table, establishing a relationship between the two tables.

What is a full outer join? A full outer join is a join that keeps every row from both tables regardless of whether keys matched. Columns in one table are filled with NULL where there wasn’t a match in the other table.

What is a GUI question? A GUI (Graphical User Interface) question is a question built using Metabase’s graphical query builder (as opposed to a question created with the native query editor).

What is GeoJSON? GeoJSON is a popular format for representing maps.

What is a goal line? A goal line is a constant line added as a marker to a chart showing how high (or low) values must be to be considered noteworthy.

What is a grid map? A grid map is a map with values overlaid graphically in a regular grid, e.g., as squared 10km by 10km colored to show values.

What is a histogram? A histogram is a chart that displays continuous data using vertical bars that each represent a discrete, equal-sized range. These ranges are called bins. While bar charts are used to visualize categorical information (like product categories), histograms display information along a spectrum, separated into binned ranges. If your data is numerical — say, price or quantity — consider opting for a histogram. Example histogram You could use a histogram to visualize a count of orders broken down by subtotal, like so: Fig. 1. A histogram showing the distribution of order subtotals. Histograms will only show a thin sliver of white space between each of the bins to indicate that the bars represent bins across a range of continuous values.

What is horizontal scaling? Horizontal scaling is adding additional components to a system to improve performance, e.g., adding more servers.

What is an inner join? An inner join is a join that only keeps rows where the keys from the input tables matched.

What is JSON? JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) is a way to represent data by combining basic values in arrays and key/value structures using the syntactic conventions of JavaScript.

What is a JWT? A JSON Web Token (JWT) is a standard for sharing encrypted authentication credentials between web services.

What is a join? A join is the combination of results from two tables in a relational database. While the word “join” makes it sound like you’re merging the tables themselves, a join actually takes the rows from two (or more) different tables and returns a new set of rows that combines columns from those tables, using entity keys and foreign keys to determine which rows are related. Types of joins There are four types of SQL joins: Left outer join: select all records from Table A, along with records from Table B that meet the join condition, if any. Right outer join: select all records from Table B, along with records from Table A that meet the join condition, if any. Inner join: only select the records from Table A and B where the join condition is met. Full outer join: select all records from both tables, whether or not the join condition is met. Example joins in Metabase Metabase defaults to left outer joins for questions asked in the query builder, but inner joins are the default for native SQL queries (that is, if you just use JOIN in your query rather than specifying which type of join). Let’s say we wanted to return results from both the People and Orders tables in Metabase’s Sample Database, like a table of includes an order ID, the name of the person who placed that order, and their user ID. Query builder join Figure 1 shows what this join would look like in Metabase’s notebook editor. We’d also want to pick which columns are visible, so we aren’t shown every column from both tables. {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/join/join-notebook-editor.png” description=”Fig. 1. A join in the query builder.” %} Native SQL query join If we were to write this same query in SQL, it may look something like this: SELECT orders.id AS "Order ID", people.name AS "Name", people.id AS "User ID" FROM people JOIN orders ON people.id = orders.user_ID Here we’ve identified where the join happens (in this case, joining at People → ID and Orders → User_ID, an entity key and foreign key).

What is a KPI? A key performance indicator (KPI) is a metric that shows progress toward a personal or company goal.

What is the LDAP? The Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) is a protocol for accessing directory information services, often used as a single source of truth for authentication.

What is a left outer join? A left outer join is a join that keeps every row from the first (left-hand) table regardless of whether that row matched any in the second (right-hand) table. Columns from the second table are filled with NULL if there was no match.

What is a line chart? A line chart is a type of visualization that connects discrete values connected by lines to show changes and trends. Line charts are useful for tracking quantitative data over some sequence, often (though not always) time, known as a time series. You’ll typically plot the measure or metric along the y-axis, with your sequence along the x-axis, like the count of orders (y-axis) over time (x-axis). Line charts, like bar charts, are a go-to chart for visualizing changes in data and for forecasting future data based on trends. Example line chart in Metabase Figure 1 shows a line chart that plots the number of reviews from the Sample Database’s Reviews table over time, broken out by month: {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/line-chart/line-chart-example.png” description=”Fig. 1. A line chart showing the number of reviews over time.” %} This example also includes a trend line showing the overall direction of the points on the chart. You have a lot of options when it comes to customizing a line chart, whether you want to display your data as an area chart, adjust the scale of axes in your line chart, or even track multiple series within one graph.

What is the linear axis? The linear axis is an axis in a chart that spaces marks according to their values.

What is a linked filter? A linked filter is a filter widget that only displays a subset of values depending on the value of another filter. For example, a City filter can be linked to a Country filter so that the former only shows cities in the latter.

What is a load balancer? A piece of hardware or software that distributes traffic evenly to available system components, e.g., sends queries to web servers to ensure they’re all equally heavily loaded.

What is a measure? A measure is a numerical attribute of your data, and can be broken out by one or more dimensions. These are the fields in your database containing numerical values that can be calculated or aggregated. Measures are quantitative; you can perform calculations on them like sums, averages, or standard deviations. Example measure If we have a table in our database that stores product information, the field containing each product’s price is a measure. Measures vs. metrics On its own, a measure won’t give us a very well-rounded view of our data — that’s where metrics come in. Metrics are a kind of measure; they’re the calculations that you perform on your raw data (your unaggregated measures). While a product’s price is a measure, the standard deviation of all our products’ prices is a metric. The KPIs that your organization tracks are metrics too, like each month’s average order totals.

What is Metabot? Metabot was our experimental LLM chatbot and it’s no longer supported. We’re active exploring other ways to leverage LLMs within Metabase. We’ll continue to share updates in our public roadmap.

What is metadata? Metadata is information that describes data to make it easier to find, manipulate, and make use of that data. Metadata examples Think about a file on your computer, like a digital image or text document. Among many other attributes, that file has a name, file type, extension, size, and timestamps noting when it was created, last opened, and last modified. This is all metadata — none of those attributes are really the file itself, but they do tell you important things about the file. Understanding and keeping track of this metadata tells both you and your computer how that file should be sorted and handled, like indicating to your computer what software to use when opening that file. Metadata exists beyond the analytics world, and is found pretty much everywhere. It’s important in a wide variety of industries, from photography to libraries to broadcast television, since any organization that handles or generates data needs to be able to find and organize it. Metadata is sometimes human-readable (like the title of a book or field names in a database), but can also to be machine-readable, like an XML or JSON file. Metadata in relational databases and data warehouses In a relational database, metadata includes all the information that make up that database’s schema, like the following: Table names Field names Entity keys Foreign keys Data types Views Integrity constraints However, there’s more to database metadata than just its schema. User information, business definitions, table and field descriptions, database size, and storage information are all important pieces of metadata too. Depending on how your database is configured, you may store some metadata within the database itself (like table and field names), or in a separate file or set of files that contain all of a database’s metadata. This is known as a data dictionary. In a data warehouse, metadata acts like an index or table of contents, defining all of the objects stored within that data warehouse, as well as information about the various ETL jobs that manipulate data so it can be useful for those who need it. Metadata about an ETL would likely include the name of the job, its purpose, when and how often it runs, which data the job uses, and where that data ends up. And if that job is properly annotated with plenty of useful metadata, it’s then easier for you or a coworker to understand what exactly the job does and why. Using metadata in Metabase Metadata plays a big part in Metabase! For example, designating a column’s field type (itself a form of metadata) gives Metabase an idea of what that field actually means, so Metabase can know how to format that field or what kind of visualization to show you. Models make use of metadata too. Annotating columns with a description when creating a model can go a long way in helping people better understand your data. Figure 1 shows how those descriptions show up when hovering over a column in that model: {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/metadata/hover-description.png” description=”Fig. 1. Viewing the Products table’s metadata in the data reference section.” %} Finally, you can always view table metadata in the data reference section of Metabase’s data browser. Figure 2 shows the how that looks for the Sample Database’s Products table. As you can see, this view provides useful information like column names, descriptions, field types, and data types: {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/metadata/metadata-data-reference.png” description=”Fig. 2. Viewing the Products table’s metadata in the data reference section.” %}

What is a metric? A metric is a calculation performed on a measure. Metrics are quantitative attributes of data, with some summarization applied. Metric vs. measure You’ll see the terms metric and measure used interchangeably, and they’re pretty similar concepts, both referring to some numerical value that’s part of (or drawn from) your data. However, there’s an important distinction: measures are raw, unaggregated data, while metrics are aggregated (or summarized) data. For example, while a field like Discount is a measure, the standard deviation of that Discount field would be a metric. Some people will also use “metric” to mean a computation of measures that’s specifically related to performance goals, like CRR (customer churn rate) or NRR (net revenue retention). By this definition, a metric is basically a KPI (key performance indicator), depending on whether or not someone has designated that metric as “key.” Example metric If we wanted to determine the average of order subtotals in Metabase’s Sample Database, we’d do so by summarizing, like in figure 1: {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/metric/example-metric-summarization.png” description=”Fig. 1. Summarizing the Orders table by subtotal average, a metric.” %} In this case, Subtotal is a measure, but average subtotal is our metric. Metrics in Metabase In Metabase, a capital-M Metric is a saved aggregation based on one table, with or without filters applied. If there are certain aggregations that you and your team need to reference and use on a regular basis (like revenue), you may want to create a metric in Metabase so you can access it when asking questions, without rebuilding that aggregation yourself every time.

What is a model? A model is a fundamental building block in Metabase that you can use as a starting point for new questions.

What is multitenancy? Multitenancy is a software architecture where a single instance or deployment of an application serves multiple, distinct customers.

What is a native query? A native query is a query written as text in the database’s query language (usually SQL).

What is the native query editor? The native query editor is the editor in Metabase used to write queries as text. It includes a sidebar with three tabs: data reference, SQL variables, and SQL snippets.

What is normalization? Data normalization is the process of structuring information within a relational database to reduce redundancy. Normalizing data ensures that the tables in a database function as efficiently as possible, eliminating ambiguity so that each table serve a singular purpose. When moving from a denormalized database to a normalized one, you’ll probably need to break out your existing tables to create additional, smaller tables. Those new tables will have a narrower focus, and will link to other tables through entity and foreign keys. With normalization comes the added benefit of reducing your overall database size and easing database maintenance, since you’re no longer storing the same information in several places. Example of data normalization The normalization process is carried out according to rules that build upon each other, known as normal forms. First normal form (1NF) states that fields should not store multiple values within a single cell, and that each field within a table should be unique. Here’s an example: Denormalized table Product_ID Product_name Product_color1 Product_color2 P001 Knit cardigan Pink Maroon P002 Bootcut jeans Navy   P003 Linen vest Camel Off-white P004 Running sneakers Orange   You’ll notice that we have two fields containing similar information, about product color. To bring this table in accordance with 1NF, we need to break this table out into two separate tables that can be joined together. Normalized product name table Product_ID Product_name P001 Knit blazer P002 Bootcut jeans P003 Linen vest P004 Running sneakers Normalized product color table Product_ID Product_color P001 Pink P001 Maroon P002 Navy P003 Camel P003 Off-white P004 Orange Check out our Learn article for examples of 2NF and 3NF. While normal forms beyond these three exist, their use is largely theoretical and the first three should be sufficient for most practical database needs.

What is the notebook editor? The notebook editor is the GUI interface for asking questions in Metabase. See query builder for more info.

What is OLAP? Online Analytical Processing (OLAP) is processing that involves a small number of large operations, such as creating quarterly reports.

What is OLTP? Online Transaction Processing (OLTP) is processing that involves a large number of small operations, such as logging user activity on a website.

What is an ordinal axis? An ordinal axis is an axis in a chart that displays values according to the discrete groups those values are in.

What is Our Analytics? Our Analytics is the root collection in Metabase.

What is a parameter? A parameter is a special type of variable that specifies an input to a query. Setting a parameter lets end users input a value (like in a dashboard or report) to change what data that query returns, typically filtering by a measure or dimension. The parameter passes that value through to the query being run, and the results of that query will depend on whatever value that person entered. Parameter vs. variable vs. argument You may see “parameter” used interchangeably with “variable” or “argument,” so it’s worth pointing out some distinctions here. A parameter is a type of variable; it’s just one where some specific input value gets passed along to the program or query being run. Not all variables are parameters, though — you may also have variables that are set within your program or query and can’t be modified by anyone on the other side. An argument refers to the value itself that gets passed along when your program or query runs. For example, if you set a parameter as {% raw %}{{productID}}{% endraw %}, and enter a value of 34, your argument is 34. A parameter defines that there will be an input value, but the input value itself is the argument. So yes, technically these terms all differ, but it’s okay to use them interchangeably, as long as you’re generally referring to a place or container to pass values into so you can filter results. Parameters in Metabase In Metabase, you can set a parameter using a filter widget or via a URL. Parameters come into play in Metabase in a few different ways: SQL templates By adding parameters to SQL queries in Metabase, you can create SQL templates that add filter widgets to those queries, allowing people to easily change that parameter’s value when they run that query. If we wanted to create a SQL template on a query that counted the number of customers in each state using the Sample Database’s People table, we’d use: SELECT count(*) FROM people WHERE state = {%raw%}{{State}}{%endraw%} By wrapping {%raw%}{{State}}{%endraw%} in double curly brackets, we’ve created a parameter that adds a filter widget to this question, letting people input the state they want without needing to change the text of the query itself, like in figure 1: {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/parameter/parameter-sql-template.png” description=”Fig. 1. Creating a SQL template that adds a filter widget to a query.” %} Dashboard filters Dashboard filters let you set parameters that get applied to a dashboard. For example, you can create a dashboard filter that lets people input a State value and link that that filter to the State column in the questions or cards on your dashboard. Then when people enter the value they want (like North Carolina, shown in figure 2), they’ll see those cards change accordingly. {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/parameter/parameter-dashboard-filter.png” description=”Fig. 2. A dashboard with a filter applied on the State column.” %} When you enter a value into a dashboard filter, you’ll notice that the URL changes to include that value. Custom destinations You can also insert parameters into a URL to dictate what happens when people click on a chart in a dashboard. For example, you can set a custom destination by using values from the card’s results to construct a URL that directs people to another dashboard or external site with that ID as part of the URL. Maybe you have a dashboard containing questions that track how different products in your inventory have sold, and a dashboard filter that lets people input the product they want to check in on. You could take things a step further by passing that product’s ID onto a custom destination, parameterizing a URL with that ID value and sending people to that product’s page on your website. When you visit that site, its URL may look something like this: https://www.your-website.com/products/id?productID=34 In this case, that productID=34 in the URL is your parameter. Embedding When embedding Metabase questions and dashboards in your app, you can set parameters to customize what different users see when viewing those embeds.

What is a personal collection? A personal collection is Your semi-private collection in Metabase, viewable only by you and Admins. Your personal collection is a great place to draft questions and dashboards.

What is a pin map? A pin map displays a single discrete marker for each point of interest.

What is a pivot table? A pivot table is a data visualization tool that summarizes rows and columns of a table and lets you rotate (“pivot”) the columns to view those summaries in different ways. The summary rows are usually subtotals or grand totals, though they can also be other metrics like averages. This ability to rotate columns by 90 degrees, so that the values in that column become the columns themselves for the pivoted tables, can be really helpful when trying to analyze data across multiple dimensions, like time, location, and category. Example pivot table If we want to see how orders perform over the days of the week, broken out by different product categories, a pivot table is a great choice, as it’ll give us an easy-to-digest glimpse at a lot of numerical data. That pivot table may look something like this: {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/pivot-table/pivot-table.png” description=”Fig. 2. A pivot table containing information about how four product categories performed on different days of the week.” %} It’s nice to have those summary rows that include totals for each day of the week, but it’s still not easy to compare category sales on different days. However, if we pivot the Created At column so that its values become the column headings, our result looks like this: {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/pivot-table/pivot-table-pivoted.png” description=”Fig. 2. Our same pivot table, with the Created At column pivoted, giving us a better look at all of the data in our table.” %} Now we can quickly compare orders across day and product category, while still seeing the totals for both, without having to scroll through a long list of rows.

What is a predicate? In SQL, a predicate is a type of conditional expression that evaluates to either true or false, like quantity > 0. Including a predicate in your query narrows down your results by filtering out unwanted rows based on whether that expression returns true or false. Predicate expressions all contain some sort of comparison element, like =, >, or <. When evaluated, the resulting true and false values are known as boolean values, though not all databases support boolean values as a data type. Not all databases support the same list of predicates either, especially predicates beyond mathematical comparisons (like BETWEEN or ISNULL), so check out your database’s documentation to know for sure which predicates will work for your use case. Null values: not zero, just not there While predicates typically evaluate to one of two boolean values (like true or false), if the field being evaluated lacks a value entirely, it’s known as null. That doesn’t mean its value is zero, but that rather that is no value present in that field. If your predicate expression requires that quantity > 0, then a row without values will not return true or false, but rather will return null. Example predicate An example of a predicate is condition that follows WHERE in a simple SQL SELECT query, like so: SELECT * from orders WHERE subtotal > 35 In this case, our predicate expression is subtotal > 35. Each row in the Orders table has a value in the Subtotal field, and for each row, this predicate evaluates whether it’s true or false that the subtotal is greater than $35. From there, our query returns only those rows with a subtotal greater than $35. In Metabase’s query builder, you use predicates when filtering your data. You can also write your own predicates in the notebook editor using custom expressions. In the question below, we’re filtering the People table in the Sample Database to only show us records where the State field equals Montana, or state = MT: {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/predicate/predicate-filter.png” description=”Fig. 1. A predicate expression (or filter) in Metabase’s query builder that will return only records where the State field equals Montana (MT).” %}

What is a primary key? A primary key is a unique value that identifies a row in a database table.

What is a production database? A production database stores information that Metabase manages (as opposed to the application database that stores Metabase’s own management data).

What is a pulse? Now deprecated in favor of Dashboard Subscriptions, pulses were questions that ran according to a specific schedule and would be sent out via email or Slack.

What is the query builder? In Metabase, the query builder is the graphical interface for asking questions. If you aren’t a SQL person or just prefer to analyze your data using buttons and dropdowns instead of code, the query builder’s got you covered. And if you aren’t exactly sure what you’re trying to figure out about that data, those buttons and dropdowns can give you some ideas, like listing options for the filters and groupings you can add to your starting table, model, or saved question. Asking questions with Metabase’s query builder There are a couple ways you can use the query builder to ask questions about your data: Start from the data browser. Add filters and summarizations using the sidebars to the right of your data visualization. Create your question from scratch using the query builder interface. The query builder offers more flexibility for constructing a question: in addition to the regular filtering and summarization options, you can use custom expressions to create more sophisticated filters and aggregations. You can also join tables, create custom columns, and preview your results at each step before visualizing the final product. These paths aren’t mutually exclusive — you can start in the data browser, visualize your data, use the sidebars to tweak your question, open the query builder to make additional changes, and so on. Example: using the query builder We’ll use the query builder to construct a question using Metabase’s Sample Database. Let’s say we want to know how our large orders (that is, orders with a Subtotal greater than $100) are broken out by Product → Category. Figure 1 shows how we’d construct this question in the query builder: {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/query-builder/notebook-editor.png” description=”Fig. 1. Asking a question using the query builder.” %} Once we visualize our question, let’s add another filter so we’re only viewing full-price orders (orders where there was no discount applied). Figure 2 shows what our query builder looks like just before adding that second filter: {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/query-builder/second-filter.png” description=”Fig. 2. Adding a second filter while visualizing our data in the query builder.” %}

What is a question? In Metabase, a question is a query, its results, and its visualization. If you’re trying to figure something out about your data in Metabase, you’re probably either asking a question or viewing a question that someone else on your team created. In everyday usage, question is pretty much synonymous with query. What you can do with questions in Metabase You can ask questions in Metabase using the graphical query builder or the native query editor, and then do things like: Save your question to a collection so that you can come back to or build on it later. Add that question to relevant dashboards. Questions on a dashboard are known as cards. Set up email or Slack alerts on your question. Share the results of your question by sending links to people on your team — even to questions that you haven’t saved. Download the results of your question as CSV, XLSX, or JSON. Convert your saved question to a model. Example question Figure 1 shows a question based on Metabase’s Sample Database — the average rating of our company’s Products, broken out by Category. Here we’ve visualized this question as a bar chart: {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/question/example-question.png” description=”Fig. 1. An example question with one summarization, visualized as a bar chart.” %} And figure 2 shows what this same question looks like as a table: {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/question/example-question-table.png” description=”Fig. 2. The same question, visualized as a table.” %} Questions and the Metabase API In the Metabase API, you can edit and get information about questions in your Metabase instance using the api/card route.

What is a read replica? A read replica is one of a set of databases that contains identical data that can only be read (not updated), and is used to improve performance and ensure high availability.

What is a record? A record is a group of related data with the same structure. Just like in a traditional spreadsheet, records in a relational database are stored as horizontal rows within a table, and contain values that correspond with that table’s fields, or columns. Records typically reference a single unit, whether that’s a customer, an order, a session, or some other object that your database captures. A record in a database is usually identified by its value in that table’s entity key field. Example record Let’s take a look at the Orders table in Metabase’s Sample Database (figure 1). {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/record/orders-table.png” description=”Fig. 1. The Orders table, where each horizontal row is one record, or group of related data.” %} We see the fields in this table (the columns), like ID, User ID, Product ID, Subtotal, and so on. Each record has values that correspond with those fields, and together, those related properties make up one record. For example, we can see that the record (or row) with the ID of 8 was an order with a subtotal of $68.23, a discount of $8.65, and was created on June 17, 2019. The record right below it, with an ID of 9, follows the same structure, even though its values differ. We can click on the ID field to get a better view of a record itself, like in figure 2: {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/record/record-8.png” description=”Fig. 2. Viewing the individual record for the order with an ID of 8.” %}

What is a region map? A region map is a map that shows information for geographic regions (such as countries or states), e.g., by coloring each region to show a value.

What is a relational database? A relational database is a collection of tabular data, or the application that manages the storage and retrieval of tabular data. Relational databases contain tables, made up of columns (also known as fields) and rows (also known as records). You’ll establish relationships between tables in a database by assigning a single field to two or more tables. For one of those tables, that field will be designated as an entity key, while for the other(s) it’ll be a foreign key. With these relationships in place, you can query data (probably using SQL) across tables without having to reorganize or duplicate that data. Introduced in the early 1970s, relational databases remain a (if not the) dominant model for structuring data today. While technically a relational database refers to your data itself and a relational database management system (RDBMS) refers to the software application you use to manage that data, in reality people use the terms interchangeably. The relational model is so prevalent that in many contexts, the word “database” itself implies a relational one, unless otherwise specified. Example relational database Metabase’s Sample Database (the one you see used in examples throughout our docs and tutorials) is an H2 relational database. Figure 1 shows a look at the four tables in the Sample Database: {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/relational-database/tables-in-sample-db.png” description=”Fig. 1. Metabase’s Sample Database (a relational database) contains four tables: Products, Orders, People, and Reviews.” %}

What is a right outer join? A right outer join keeps every row from the second (right-hand) table regardless of whether that row matched any in the first (left-hand) table. Columns from the first table are filled with NULL if there was no match.

What is a row? A row is a single group of related data within a table. Relational databases contain tables with rows and columns (also known as records and fields, respectively). Columns are vertical, and hold a list of values all from the same field. Rows are your horizontal elements in a table. The values in a row belong to different fields, but all refer to a single unit (like a row that contains information about one customer or one order). Row vs. record vs. tuple Technically speaking, a row is the underlying logical grouping of related data in a table, while a record refers to that same grouping within the context of an application. When it comes to inserting, updating, or deleting in SQL, you’re dealing with rows, not records. This is a pretty subtle distinction though, and most people use these terms interchangeably. You’ll sometimes see tuple used as well, which is a mathematical term for the same concept. Example row in Metabase Figure 1 shows the Products table in Metabase’s Sample Database, with one row highlighted. This row contains information from several different fields, each value relating to one of the products in our inventory (in this case, the Enormous Aluminum Shirt). {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/row/example-row.png” description=”Fig. 1. A row in the Products table.” %}

What is a row chart? A row chart is a variation on a bar chart, where data is visualized with horizontal bars rather than vertical.

What is SAML? Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML) is n XML-based standard for exchanging authentication and authorization data.

What is an SKU? A stock keeping unit (SKU) is a scannable bar code used to uniquely identify some type of product.

What is SQL? Structured query language (known as SQL) is a standardized and widely-used language for accessing and manipulating data in a relational databases. Using SQL involves writing and executing structured commands, known as statements, that communicate to a database what information you need or what you want to change. SQL is a published ANSI and ISO standard, meaning there are established rules about what exactly the language includes and how it works. However, SQL-based database systems (like PostgreSQL, MySQL, SQL Server, etc.) each have slightly different functions and their own syntactical quirks — no major databases conform 100% to the official written standard. Using SQL, you can: Create and configure databases, tables, and indexes Insert, update, and delete information in databases Retrieve information from databases (commonly known as querying) Set and adjust database permissions Is it pronounced “S.Q.L.” or “sequel”? Opinions are split on the matter of pronunciation, with some of those opinions very strongly held. When computer scientists Donald Chamberlin and Raymond Boyce first developed the language specification in the early 1970s, they called it “SEQUEL” (pronounced “sequel”), but changed the language’s name to SQL when faced with a trademark dispute. The ANSI and ISO standards dictate that the official pronunciation is the initialism (“S.Q.L.”), but both pronunciations are common today. So go with whatever sounds best to you — just don’t be surprised when someone disagrees with you. Querying databases with SQL No matter how advanced or complex, all SQL queries involve telling a database to return certain columns from a table (or tables), and then optionally specifying conditions about which rows should be included in those results and how they should be presented. SQL is case-insensitive, but you’ll often see people capitalizing reserved words (e.g., functions and clauses like SELECT, WHERE, HAVING, or ORDER BY). You can format your SQL statements as a single line if you like, though people will usually break their queries out onto separate lines for readability. Example SQL query Here’s a SQL query that asks Metabase’s Sample Database to return a table of orders where the order subtotal was greater than $100: SELECT * FROM orders WHERE subtotal > 100 We can break this query down into three statements: SELECT * tells the database to return every column in the table. FROM orders tells the database which table that is. WHERE subtotal > 100 tells the database to filter results and only return rows where the value in the Subtotal field is greater than 100. The example query above is a pretty simple one; more advanced queries can include joins, aggregations, CTEs, and other tools for pulling and organizing data. SQL in Metabase You don’t have to write SQL when asking questions in Metabase (that’s what the query builder is for), but if you prefer SQL queries, the native query editor is there for you, along with features like: SQL variables (including field filters) SQL snippets SQL snippet controls (available in some plans) And if you do opt for using the query builder to ask questions in Metabase, you can always view the underlying SQL that powers your question or convert it to a native SQL query.

What is a SQL snippet? A SQL snippet is a named bit of SQL code that you can insert in a SQL query.

What is SSO? SSO is an authentication (auth) setup that lets people use one login to access independent apps. It’s a bit like using your passport to get into different countries. With SSO, you don’t need to use one login for each account, just as you don’t need to travel with different pieces of ID specific to each country. For example, you might have two different logins that are used with two different sign-in pages for your email and your online banking. If the IT teams at your email provider and bank each set up SSO, you would be able to use one sign-in page and login to access both websites. {% include image_and_caption.html url=’/glossary/images/sso/google-sign-in.png’ description=”Fig. 1. You’ll probably recognize this Sign in with Google prompt from other apps. This is an example of SSO set up with Google sign-in.” %} How does SSO work? Since digital authentication can’t be done in person, your identity on the internet is checked by a service that asks you for proof of something you know (like a password), or proof of something you physically have (like sending a code to your phone). These pieces of proof are called identity factors. The most common way to authenticate is through a single identity factor, such as a password. If you add another factor, like a phone number, you get two-factor authentication (2FA). Naturally, you can continue adding factors, (an email, a verification app, etc.), to get multi-factor authentication (MFA). Instead of using information that you know or have, SSO uses an identity factor called an authentication token that belongs to the SSO provider. An authentication token is a unique, anonymous piece of information that’s generated when you sign in to the SSO provider. The token is temporarily stored in your browser (like a browser cookie) or on the provider’s servers, and is only valid for a period of time — usually until you close the browser, or within an expiry window set by your security team. When you go to an app that is set up with SSO, it’ll automatically ask for the authentication token from the SSO provider, instead of asking you to log in. If the token is still valid (you’ve signed in to the SSO provider in the same session, and it hasn’t expired), your identity is considered authenticated, and you’ll be allowed into the app. If the token has become invalid, you’ll be prompted to sign in with the SSO provider to create a fresh one. Where does SSO fit into the bigger picture? Authentication only deals with who you are (identity). From there, other services keep track of where you are allowed to go, and what you can do once you get there (access management). Identity and access management (IAM) is the umbrella term for these tools and processes. SSO and other parts of an IAM toolkit are often packaged up by identity providers (IdPs), such as Okta, Auth0, or OneLogin, and implemented as part of cloud security. SSO in Metabase Setting up SSO in Metabase means that people won’t need to create a separate Metabase username and password to access your organization’s data. They can simply log in through the same account as your chosen identity provider. The open-source edition of Metabase can be set up with Google SSO or LDAP. Pro and Enterprise editions of Metabase work with SAML and JWT standards (in addition to Google SSO and LDAP). SSO can also be combined with data sandboxing in Metabase Pro and Enterprise plans to define the data that people can see and interact with, based on user attributes such as their department or role.

What is the Sample Database? The Sample Database is a small database that ships with Metabase so you can start asking questions and creating dashboards before you connect to your database. The Sample Database contains four tables: Orders, People, Products, and Reviews. It’s an H2 database, and you’ll see the Sample Database used in examples all over Learn.

What is a saved question? A saved question is a Metabase question that has been saved and given a name. The results of saved questions can be used as the input to other questions.

What is a schema? A schema is the design or structure that defines the organization of a dataset: which columns are grouped into tables, how those tables relate to each other, and the rules and data types that define those columns. Schema is an overloaded term; it’s an abstract word that has accumulated a lot of different definitions, and as a result can be confusing to sort out. Depending on the context, schema can mean: The overall structure, specification, or “blueprints” of your database A diagram that demonstrates how tables in your database relate to each other A single collection of tables (among many) within your database Finally, schema sometimes means something specific to whichever database platform you’re using, like in Oracle, where schema refers to all objects in a database created by the same user. Schema as overall structure: design and implementation Once you’ve figured how your data fits together from a high-level standpoint (that is, your conceptual data model), the next step is creating a schema that reflects that data model, bringing it from the abstract to a database that your organization can use and populate with information. Broadly speaking, this process is made up of two major steps: Design: map out the structure of your database, creating an entity relationship diagram (ERD) in the process. Implementation: Use that ERD to generate the SQL commands that, when run in your database, will create your desired schema. What your schema design process looks like depends on whether you’re dealing with transactional or analytical databases, and whether you’re starting from scratch or have already begun collecting data. Regardless of at which point you’re designing schemas, you’ll have to think deeply about the needs of your organization and what questions you anticipate asking of your data. Schema-on-write vs. schema-on-read Most traditional relational databases use a schema-on-write system, where data gets verified and formatted into a schema before it’s written to that database. Since the data being written must conform to whatever specific data integrity rules you’ve established (like requiring that all values in a field be unique, not accepting null values in a field, or formatting dates a certain way), adding this new data to your database can be slow. However, the read times are fast, since that data has already been verified. In a schema-on-read system, data (like in a data lake) is only verified once it’s been read, or pulled from that database. Schema-on-read systems tend to be more flexible, as you can store unstructured data without worrying about it conforming to a rigid data model. In this case, writing data is faster (since that data doesn’t need to be verified as it gets loaded in), but queries take more time to execute. Whether you opt for a schema-on-write or schema-on-read strategy will depend on your organization’s needs and specific use cases. If having meticulously structured and consistent datasets is important to your organization, a schema-on-write system may be your best bet. By contrast, if you regularly need to pull in a wide variety of data without always knowing exactly what it that data looks like, you may want to use a schema-on-write system. Logical and physical schemas Regardless of whether you’re working with a schema-on-write or schema-on-read system, you’ll also need to think about database structure and its implementation — that is, your logical and physical schemas. Logical schemas define the structure of your data, while the actual implementation of that structure (like how and where you store the files and code that make up your database) belongs to a physical schema. Logical schemas Logical schemas are created by diagramming how tables and their fields relate to each other. In creating a logical schema, you’ll establish tables, relationships, fields, and views, answering questions like: What data are we collecting, or do we want to collect? What tables does your database (or individual schema within it) need? How do those tables relate to each other? What fields does does each table need? What are the data types for each of those fields? Which fields are required? Schema as diagram: mapping out entities and relationships In answering these and other questions, you’ll likely sketch out an entity relationship diagram (ERD) that defines each table, its fields, their integrity constraints, and the relationships between those tables, including the primary and foreign keys that establish those connections and whether those relationships between tables are one-to-one, one-to-many, or many-to-one. Visualizing your tables and how they relate to each other can also bring to light any major omissions or conflicts. And yes, sometimes you’ll see these diagrams themselves referred to as schemas. The image below shows an entity relationship diagram of a schema with two tables, PRODUCTS and MANUFACTURER. The “(PK)” and “(FK)” notations tell us which fields are primary and foreign keys, and the line linking these tables indicates a one-to-many relationship, in that one manufacturer can be linked to many products. {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/schema/simple-erd.png” description=”Fig. 2. An entity relationship diagram of a schema with two tables.” %} You can map out your schema on paper or using design software that can directly translate your diagram to the SQL commands that you’ll need to implement your database. At this point your schema is platform-agnostic; mapping out those rules and relationships doesn’t tie you to any single database software. Physical schemas Once you’ve identified the logical configuration of your database, you’ll create a physical schema to implement it into a specific RDBMS, defining where your database files will live as well as their storage allocation on a disk. Schema as one collection of tables among many While a single collection of tables may be sufficient if your database only sees a few users and contains data that everyone needs to access, you may find that a relying on a single schema in your database doesn’t cut it for your organization. If you’re handling data across a lot of tables (think in the dozens, hundreds, or thousands), grouping those tables into separate schemas will help from an organizational standpoint, making it so you can store similar information together while retaining the ability to query across schemas when necessary. Keeping multiple schemas within a database can be helpful from a security standpoint as well, like separating tables that hold sensitive information into a schema that only those who need to can access, usually in combination with views. Schema design for transactional vs. analytical databases When thinking about schemas for transactional databases (also known as operational databases), your data will need to be normalized to some extent and adhere to data integrity standards, since efficiency and performance for those small transactions and OLTP are crucial. Designing a schema for an analytical databases will look different. For starters, you’ve probably already collected raw data, possibly from multiple sources, and now need to impose some structure in order to analyze it. In this case, redundancy is okay, as analytical databases place greater emphasis on explorability and less on performance. Here your schema can also be more loosely defined, as no fixed patterns (like normalization) are needed. Schema design for analytical databases is more about understanding where data from your various sources lives, and knowing what tables you’ll need to join to answers questions you have. Star schema One common structure you’ll see applied to analytical databases is a star schema, which separates data into fact tables (that is, quantitative data) that relate to multiple dimension tables describing those facts. In a simple implementation of a star schema, several dimension tables all surround and relate to a single fact table, looking like a star in diagram form with the fact table at its center, like so: {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/schema/star-schema.png” description=”Fig. 2. An entity relationship diagram of a simple star schema.” %} Tables within a star schema are typically denormalized, which leads to better performance for analytical queries. Creating a database schema Most database platforms (such as Redshift and PostgreSQL) use “schema” to mean the configuration of a dataset and non-nested groupings of tables and other named objects within that dataset, though Oracle defines schema as all of the objects created by and belonging to a single database user. To create a schema within your RDBMS, use the query CREATE SCHEMA, like in this example, where we create a schema with two tables that are linked by the customer_id field: CREATE SCHEMA new_schema; CREATE TABLE new_schema.orders ( order_id product_id customer_id subtotal order_date ) CREATE TABLE new_schema.customers ( customer_id customer_name customer_address customer_email ); This is a very simple schema; we didn’t specify data types or any other constraints on the fields in our tables. If we wanted to require the customer_id field in the customers table and indicate that its data type is an integer, we’d format that field like this: customer_id INT NOT NULL Note that in MySQL, CREATE SCHEMA is synonymous with CREATE DATABASE.

What is a search filter? A search filter is a filter that hides any rows in a table that don’t match some criteria.

What is a search widget? A search widget can be added to a dashboard that applies a search filter to the values used in one or more cards.

What is a secure embed? A secure embed is a method for embedding an iframe displaying a question or dashboard that uses signed tokens for authentication.

What is a segment? A segment is a specific subset of a larger group of items, like a certain grouping of customers. The process of defining and creating these subsets is known as segmentation. For example, you may want to segment your customers based on demographic, recent activity, or some other attribute. In Metabase, Segments are named filters or sets of filters that people can apply to questions asked using the query builder. Admins can define segments to get everyone on the same page about which customers count as “New user” or which are a “Churn risk”, or however else you want to slice up your data. If you’re partial to native SQL queries, SQL snippets serve a similar purpose as segments do for GUI questions, ensuring consistent definitions that people can plug into their queries. Example segment in Metabase Figure 1 shows a look at the Products table in Metabase’s Sample Database. You’ll notice that the filter sidebar shows three segments at the top of the list, identifiable by a star icon. With these segments in place, we won’t need to recalculate what a high margin, new, or top rated product is each time we want to draw on those definitions. {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/segment/segment-example.png” description=”Fig. 1. Three segments that we’ve added to the Products table: high margin, new products, and top rated products.” %}

What is serialization? Serialization is the process of storing the state of an application or other object as a file, so that it can be reloaded (or deserialized) later. In the serialization process, that complex object gets converted to a stream of data, one that’s much easier to transfer over a network or copy to a new instance. Think of serialization like taking a snapshot of some application, but with the power to turn that flattened snapshot back into a live object whenever you’re ready. Serialization comes in handy if you need to manage multiple instances of an app, like development or staging instances in addition to the ones you use for production. Serialization can also be used to customize an initial state of an application, like preloading a Metabase instance with connection details to a database, predefined groups, dashboards, and so on. Serialization in Metabase {% include plans-blockquote.html feature=”Serialization” self-hosted-only=true %} Metabase’s serialization feature lets you capture and export the contents of your Metabase so that you can reload them into another instance — or several. Those Metabase artifacts you capture when serializing are collectively known as a data dump, containing YAML files that hold your collections, dashboards, saved questions, and some system settings.

What is a session metric? A session metric is a measure of how someone interacted with a system, such as the number of pages they viewed in succession.

What is a session token? A session token is a random value generated by a server to identify a specific user for the duration of one interaction session.

What is a soft delete? A soft delete marks a record as no longer active or valid without actually deleting it from the database. Soft deletes can improve performance, and can allow “deleted” data to be recovered.

What is a stacked bar chart? A stacked bar chart is a bar chart in which several values are shown for each category by stacking bars sized according to each value.

What is a summary table? A summary table is the result of an aggregation that gets saved in a database or data warehouse so that people can work with those precomputed metrics. The term “summary table” can get confusing, since some people use “summary table” to describe any result of an aggregate function, like the table that you get after filtering and grouping by some measures and dimensions. By this definition, a summary table is basically the same thing as a pivot table, minus the pivoting. The difference here comes down to whether or not those tables get saved within your data warehouse. Creating summary tables in your data warehouse can make it easier for people to generate reports without having to query raw data. In this sense, summary tables function a lot like materialized views (which don’t necessarily aggregate data). Example: summary tables in a data warehouse For example, maybe you’re working with an analytical database that uses a star schema setup, with a fact table containing tens of thousands of individual orders records, surrounded by dimension tables that describe those orders. If someone at your organization wants to generate a weekly report containing sales data by product category from the last seven days, calculating that from your raw fact and dimension tables every time will be inefficient and costly. Instead, creating a summary table lets you join those tables and aggregate that data far less often. Then in the future when someone creates that report, they can do so using the summary table as a base, rather than needing to calculate those numbers every time from scratch. While there’s some maintenance associated with summary tables (like making sure your data refreshes on a schedule or adjusting the filters and groupings if they aren’t exactly what people need), they still tend to be a highly efficient way of working with large datasets.

What is a table? A table is data’s natural habitat. In a database, a table is a series of fields, with the values of those fields arranged in rows, each row with a value corresponding to a field. Tables in databases are connected via entity and foreign keys. Databases are made up of tables, but table can also refer to a type of data visualization, or chart. The table visualization resembles a spreadsheet, with columns corresponding to fields (or aggregations, in the case of custom columns). Example table in Metabase Metabase’s Sample Database contains four tables: Products, Orders, People, and Reviews. Figure 1 shows a question in Metabase visualized as a table. This question adds one filter to the People table, so that our result is a table of our customers whose State is Georgia: {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/table/example-table.png” description=”Fig. 1. A table showing People in Georgia (GA).” %} With the toggle below the table, we can alternate between viewing this question as a table and as a pin map (or whatever other visualization you’ve chosen).

What is a text card? A text card is a card on a dashboard where you can enter Markdown text to give context for your dashboard. Text cards can also be used as dividers on a dashboard.

What is a time series? A time series is a sequence of data points over time. Times series are used for both analysis (how has the data performed over time) and forecasting (given the line’s trend, what can we expect next week, month, etc.). Typically you represent a time series as a line chart (called a run chart), but sometimes as a bar chart or area chart. In each case, the horizontal x-axis plots time, and each point plotted on the line is a value at a fixed interval (once an hour, or once a day, etc.). People will use the term “time series” to refer to the actual data by date/time as well as the chart that visualizes that time series. The values plotted on a time series can be measures (like a temperature) or metrics, such as the total number of orders placed in a week. If you plot the total numbers of orders for each week over fifty-two weeks (or some other period of time), the resulting chart is a visualization of a time series. Example time series Here is a time series of orders per month depicted as a line chart: {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/time-series/time-series-example.png” description=”Fig. 1. A time series showing the count of orders grouped by month.” %}

What is a transactional database? A transactional database is a database optimized for a large number of small operations rather than a few large transactions. OLTP usually relies on transactional databases.

What is a variable? A variable is any value in a program or query that can change. In SQL, declaring a variable allows you to temporarily store a single value while running a query. Parameters are a type of variable, but not all variables are parameters. When people talk about parameters, they’re usually referring specifically to variables that get modified by the end user of a dashboard or report, rather within the text of a query itself. Example variable in Metabase In Metabase, variables are placeholders in SQL queries for values that people can change without needing to rewrite the query itself. Using variables allows you to filter your data, often by adding a filter widget above that question in the SQL editor. Variables get enclosed in double braces, like this: {% raw %}{{variable_name}}{% endraw %}. In the example below, we create a variable to filter based on the Source field in the Sample Database’s People table: SELECT * FROM people WHERE source = {% raw %}{{source}}{% endraw %} When you include a variable in your query (in this case {% raw %}{{source}}{% endraw %}), Metabase adds a filter widget above the SQL editor, like in figure 1. Since the filter widget maps to the variable we created, we can plug different values into it to filter for different sources. {% include image_and_caption.html url=”/glossary/images/variable/variable-example-source.png” description=”Fig. 1. The filter widget above the query editor maps to the variable wrapped between double braces.” %}

What is vertical scaling? Vertical scaling involves making a single component of a system more powerful in order to increase performance, e.g,. adding more memory to a single server or upgrading its CPU.

What is a view? A view is a query and its results that function like a virtual table in your database. Databases compute views on demand, meaning they aren’t precomputed or materialized, and for that reason don’t occupy any storage space in the database. You can think of views as virtual or logical tables. Database views let you combine information from multiple tables and format that information however best makes sense for the people who need to query it. You (or a database administrator) can create a view that hides unnecessary fields in a cluttered table or joins tables to bring together relevant data. By using the view as the starting point, people won’t need to run the same complex queries every time just to get to their actual question about the data. The downside to querying views is that those queries can be time-consuming to run, especially if that view is the result of several tables or multiple joins. Database administrators also use views for security purposes, like creating views that hide certain fields that exist in the base table. That way, other users can still access and query the data they need without gaining access to sensitive fields or rows. View vs. materialized view If views are virtual tables (computed as needed), then materialized views are like regular tables in a database. While views require that a query be rerun every time that view is referenced, a materialized view is a precomputed view that’s saved in the database. So, materialized views take up space in your database, but since the database doesn’t have to compute materialized views each time, they perform much faster when querying than standard database views (it’s like querying a normal table). When you should (and shouldn’t) use database views Creating views in your database is a good idea if: You need to access the results of a complex query on a regular basis and don’t want to type that query out every time. You’re looking to strengthen database security by restricting access to sensitive information. You want to create custom columns without altering the underlying structure of your database. You’d like to simplify the appearance of your tables by hiding fields that are unlikely to be queried. However, if the underlying structure of your database is subject to change, you probably don’t want to rely on views; the moment a field name changes, the query you’ve established as a view may break. Your BI tool probably has features that function sort of like views too, whether it’s a model, saved question, or SQL snippet. The important distinction here is that those are all features that exist with the world of the BI tool, whereas views (materialized or not) are built into your database itself. Example view Using Metabase’s Sample Database, let’s say we wanted to create a view based on the People table that our team in Pennsylvania could use to access information like the names, addresses, birthdays, and emails of our PA-based customers, but not user passwords. We’d create that view in our database by running query shown below, which creates the view, names it pennsylvania_customers, includes only the columns we want from the People table, and only displays records where the value in the State field is the abbreviation for Pennsylvania (PA). CREATE VIEW pennsylvania_customers AS SELECT id address email name city state birth_date zip created_at FROM people WHERE state = 'PA' Then for future queries, our team in Pennsylvania could access the information they need about their customer base by querying pennsylvania_customers as their starting point. While views are a pretty fundamental feature of any SQL-based database or data warehouse, the specifics of creating, materializing, and maintaining them may differ depending on which database software or data warehouse you use.

What is white labeling? White labeling is the business practice of applying branding to someone else’s product. It generally involves changes to elements such as colors, logos, font, or content. White labeling can be used to create a sense of cohesion across products or services sourced from different places. Example of white labeling in Metabase {% include image_and_caption.html url=’/glossary/images/white-labeling/home-normally.png’ description=”Fig. 1. The clean, classic home page for Metabase without any white label changes.” %} {% include image_and_caption.html url=’/glossary/images/white-labeling/new-home-page.png’ description=”Fig. 2. The Metabase home page with a modified logo, color palette, and home page location.” %}

What is an X-ray? An X-ray is a summary or visualization of a table or column generated automatically to give users a quick insight into their data.